Download
First Tunisian Cluster Admissions of Critically Ill Patients with Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)
Correspondence to: Aida Borgi. Children’s Hospital Béchir Hamza of
Tunis -Bab Saadoun- 1007 JabbariTunis- Tunisia. Tel: 0021620975689.
E-mail: aidabdoc@yahoo.fr aida.borgi@fmt.utm.tn
Published: March 1, 2021
Received: December 11, 2020
Accepted: February 12, 2021
Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis 2021, 13(1): e2021023 DOI 10.4084/MJHID.2021.023
Received: December 11, 2020
Accepted: February 12, 2021
Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis 2021, 13(1): e2021023 DOI 10.4084/MJHID.2021.023
| This is an Open Access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. |
|
Abstract Background:
Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) is a new emerging
severe disease that is temporally related to previous exposure to
coronavirus infection disease (COVID-19). |
Introduction
Multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) is a new emerging severe
disease that is temporally related to previous exposure to coronavirus
infection (COVID-19). It is characterized by fever, abdominal pain,
gastrointestinal and cutaneous symptoms, and hemodynamic alterations.
Since late April 2020, there has been an increasing number of worldwide
reports of children with MIS-C.[1,2,3,4,5]
The world health organization (WHO) has developed a preliminary case definition for MIS-C in July 2020.[6] It includes clinical presentation, elevated markers of inflammation, evidence of infection, or contact with patients who have COVID-19 after excluding other obvious microbial causes of inflammation.
We describe the clinical features, laboratory findings, therapies, and outcomes for the first cluster of 8 children with MIS-C admitted in a Tunisian pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Informed consent has been obtained from patients and their parents.
On November 29, 2020, we alerted the Tunisian National Observatory of New and Emerging Diseases (ONIAM) about an abnormal increase of very ill children with cardiac dysfunction requiring intensive care admission.
The world health organization (WHO) has developed a preliminary case definition for MIS-C in July 2020.[6] It includes clinical presentation, elevated markers of inflammation, evidence of infection, or contact with patients who have COVID-19 after excluding other obvious microbial causes of inflammation.
We describe the clinical features, laboratory findings, therapies, and outcomes for the first cluster of 8 children with MIS-C admitted in a Tunisian pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Informed consent has been obtained from patients and their parents.
On November 29, 2020, we alerted the Tunisian National Observatory of New and Emerging Diseases (ONIAM) about an abnormal increase of very ill children with cardiac dysfunction requiring intensive care admission.
Patients and Methods
Setting.
The study was conducted in the PICU of Children’s hospital Bechir Hamza
of Tunis. The PICU is a university-affiliated children’s hospital. The
PICU has 14 beds (650 admissions/year) and provided 2 beds for COVID-19
critically ill children. From March to September 2020, no admissions
occurred with a diagnosis of COVID-19.
Study design. We conducted a retrospective study between November 1 and November 30, 2020. We included all children aged less than 15 years who were admitted to our PICU and met MIS-C criteria according to the WHO definition case.[6]
We reviewed the medical records of all patients to collect demographic and clinical data (comorbidities, symptoms, delay between symptom onset and PICU admission, organs involvement), severity scores (PRISM III), laboratory test results (markers of inflammation and cardiac enzymes), echocardiographic findings (left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)), treatment ( medical treatment and need for mechanical ventilation or noninvasive ventilation), and outcomes (length of stay, mortality).
A clinical diagnosis of shock was established in the presence of arterial hypotension, the need for vasoactive therapy to maintain normal blood pressure, or the presence of signs of hypoperfusion despite adequate fluid resuscitation.[7] Hypotension was defined by systolic or diastolic blood pressure values below the 5th percentile of the reference values for height or less than 90/50 for children aged 10 years or older.[8] Acute cardiac dysfunction was defined as the appearance of reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) less than 55%.[9] Renal involvement was defined as an increase in serum creatinine levels of double the standard limits for the patient's age according to pediatric pRIFLE.[10] Liver involvement was defined as an increase in transaminase or bilirubin levels twice above baseline or average values for the patient's age.
All patients were tested for SARS-CoV-2 (nasopharyngeal reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (QIASTAT- RP-SARS-COV-2) and had serologic tests (electrochemiluminescence immunoassay/Cobas e 411).
Study design. We conducted a retrospective study between November 1 and November 30, 2020. We included all children aged less than 15 years who were admitted to our PICU and met MIS-C criteria according to the WHO definition case.[6]
We reviewed the medical records of all patients to collect demographic and clinical data (comorbidities, symptoms, delay between symptom onset and PICU admission, organs involvement), severity scores (PRISM III), laboratory test results (markers of inflammation and cardiac enzymes), echocardiographic findings (left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)), treatment ( medical treatment and need for mechanical ventilation or noninvasive ventilation), and outcomes (length of stay, mortality).
A clinical diagnosis of shock was established in the presence of arterial hypotension, the need for vasoactive therapy to maintain normal blood pressure, or the presence of signs of hypoperfusion despite adequate fluid resuscitation.[7] Hypotension was defined by systolic or diastolic blood pressure values below the 5th percentile of the reference values for height or less than 90/50 for children aged 10 years or older.[8] Acute cardiac dysfunction was defined as the appearance of reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) less than 55%.[9] Renal involvement was defined as an increase in serum creatinine levels of double the standard limits for the patient's age according to pediatric pRIFLE.[10] Liver involvement was defined as an increase in transaminase or bilirubin levels twice above baseline or average values for the patient's age.
All patients were tested for SARS-CoV-2 (nasopharyngeal reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (QIASTAT- RP-SARS-COV-2) and had serologic tests (electrochemiluminescence immunoassay/Cobas e 411).
Results
In
the study period, 35 patients aged less than 15 years were admitted to
the PICU. Only three patients required intensive care admission for
respiratory distress and confirmed COVID-19 infection.
We reported eight children admitted with MIS-C. Seven patients were boys. The median age was eight years (interquartile range IQR:4-10 years). All children were previously fit and well. No one had obesity. The first patient with confirmed MIS-C in our cohort was admitted on November 3, 2020. Known exposure to COVID-19 was reported in 4 cases. Demographic, clinical data, laboratory test findings, and echocardiographic findings were shown in table 1.
Fever and gastrointestinal symptoms associated with pain were reported in all cases. The median delay between fever and PICU admission was 6.5 days (IQR: 4-15 days). Five patients had marked abdominal pain and were examined by the surgeon for possible appendicitis. Abdominal echography was performed in 3 cases, and an abdominal computed tomography scan in one case and showed mesenteric lymphadenitis in 2 cases and a peritoneal effusion pelvic fluid in 1 case. Seven patients had diarrhea. On examination, we found rash (n=7), conjunctivitis (n=7), cheilitis (n=5), and meningism (n=3). A lumbar puncture was performed in one case before admission in PICU for possible meningitis. We reported cardiac dysfunction in 7 cases and shock with hypotension in 3 cases. The LVEF was less than 30% in 2 subjects who presented the most severe MIS-C form with higher inflammation markers (C-reactive protein, procalcitonin).
Laboratory test findings showed an increased level of C-reactive protein and procalcitonin in all cases without microbial cause. We reported lymphopenia, increased fibrinogen level, and D-dimer levels in all patients. Troponin and pro-brain natriuretic peptide (pro-BNP) levels were elevated in all cases presenting with cardiac dysfunction; however, the lactate level was normal. Four patients had an acute kidney injury. Two patients had an increase in lipase levels up to 3 times average.
All patients had positive SARS-COV-2 serology. Only one patient had a positive nasopharyngeal RT-PCR SARS-COV-2 testing, as shown in table 1.
Treatment and outcomes for our cohort were shown in table 2. All patients required respiratory support; three were mechanically ventilated and had severe cardiac dysfunction with hypotension. Echocardiographic measures improved under inotropic agents (dobutamine and milrinone). One patient required levosimendan. Complete recovery of left ventricular function was observed at a median delay of 4 days (IQR: 1-7 days) after admission. All patients received intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG:1 dose of 2 grams per kilogram), methylprednisolone (10 milligrams per kilogram per day for three days), and a low dose of aspirin. Low-molecular-weight-heparin was administered in five patients. Antibiotics were used in two cases, but the treatment has been stopped on day 3. The median duration of fever was one day (IQR: 1-4 days). No abnormality in the coronary artery was found. No deaths occurred in our small cohort. All patients were discharged from PICU after a median length of stay of 5.5 days (IQR: 2-10 days). All children will be monitored into the future for the follow-up.
We reported eight children admitted with MIS-C. Seven patients were boys. The median age was eight years (interquartile range IQR:4-10 years). All children were previously fit and well. No one had obesity. The first patient with confirmed MIS-C in our cohort was admitted on November 3, 2020. Known exposure to COVID-19 was reported in 4 cases. Demographic, clinical data, laboratory test findings, and echocardiographic findings were shown in table 1.
| Table
1. Clinical Features of 8 Children with Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children. |
Fever and gastrointestinal symptoms associated with pain were reported in all cases. The median delay between fever and PICU admission was 6.5 days (IQR: 4-15 days). Five patients had marked abdominal pain and were examined by the surgeon for possible appendicitis. Abdominal echography was performed in 3 cases, and an abdominal computed tomography scan in one case and showed mesenteric lymphadenitis in 2 cases and a peritoneal effusion pelvic fluid in 1 case. Seven patients had diarrhea. On examination, we found rash (n=7), conjunctivitis (n=7), cheilitis (n=5), and meningism (n=3). A lumbar puncture was performed in one case before admission in PICU for possible meningitis. We reported cardiac dysfunction in 7 cases and shock with hypotension in 3 cases. The LVEF was less than 30% in 2 subjects who presented the most severe MIS-C form with higher inflammation markers (C-reactive protein, procalcitonin).
Laboratory test findings showed an increased level of C-reactive protein and procalcitonin in all cases without microbial cause. We reported lymphopenia, increased fibrinogen level, and D-dimer levels in all patients. Troponin and pro-brain natriuretic peptide (pro-BNP) levels were elevated in all cases presenting with cardiac dysfunction; however, the lactate level was normal. Four patients had an acute kidney injury. Two patients had an increase in lipase levels up to 3 times average.
All patients had positive SARS-COV-2 serology. Only one patient had a positive nasopharyngeal RT-PCR SARS-COV-2 testing, as shown in table 1.
Treatment and outcomes for our cohort were shown in table 2. All patients required respiratory support; three were mechanically ventilated and had severe cardiac dysfunction with hypotension. Echocardiographic measures improved under inotropic agents (dobutamine and milrinone). One patient required levosimendan. Complete recovery of left ventricular function was observed at a median delay of 4 days (IQR: 1-7 days) after admission. All patients received intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG:1 dose of 2 grams per kilogram), methylprednisolone (10 milligrams per kilogram per day for three days), and a low dose of aspirin. Low-molecular-weight-heparin was administered in five patients. Antibiotics were used in two cases, but the treatment has been stopped on day 3. The median duration of fever was one day (IQR: 1-4 days). No abnormality in the coronary artery was found. No deaths occurred in our small cohort. All patients were discharged from PICU after a median length of stay of 5.5 days (IQR: 2-10 days). All children will be monitored into the future for the follow-up.
| Table
2. Support measures and pharmacological treatments administered to patients admitted for MIS-C. |
Discussion
To
our knowledge, we reported the first cases of confirmed MIS-C in
Tunisia and North Africa. On November 29, 2020, we alerted the Tunisian
National Observatory of New and Emerging Diseases about an increase of
very ill children admitted in our PICU with a diagnosis of MIS-C
associated with SARS-COV-2. There were similar reports from other
pediatric departments in Tunisia, but we did not yet have a national
registry to collect data about all cases. In Africa, the first reports
were published by South African authors. Web et al.[11] reported 23 cases of confirmed MIS-C.
The WHO, the Royal College of Pediatrics in the United Kingdom, and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC established an MIS-C definition case.[12,13] Our eight patients fulfilled the criteria for the diagnosis of MIS-C. Symptoms of fever, abdominal pain, and cardiac dysfunction with elevated inflammation markers and elevated troponin and pro- BNP levels were the most seen features in MIS-C patients requiring intensive care. All patients except one had a cardiac dysfunction requiring inotropic agents. MIS-C can be observed without heart failure, but most patients admitted in intensive care units presented cardiac dysfunction or shock.[5,14,15,16] Grimaud et al.[17] reported the first case series of acute myocarditis with major systemic inflammation following SARS-COV-2 infection in twenty children. The cardiac function for our cluster admissions had been improved in a few days, and the prognosis was well for all. Dobutamine was the first agent used because of its selective inotropic effect. Three patients required milrinone, and one patient also required levosimendan. The same features were reported in the literature.[18,19] Avoiding fluid overload should be considered in all stages of the disease.
All our patients received IVIG with methylprednisolone. Most reported MIS-C were treated using the standard protocol for Kawasaki disease (KD), IV IG.[18,20,21] KD has been related to the occurrence of different viral infections in children, but that its direct, unequivocal cause is still unclear.[22] Evidence for IVIG and glucocorticoids in MIS-C is also based on their use in KD and fulminant myocarditis, two conditions that resemble MIS-C in some aspects.[23] There is no consensus for the treatment of severe MIS-C in our country. We choose to treat our critically ill patients with an association of IVIG and steroids. A patient with MIS-C is considered to have a refractory disease when the child has persistent fever and/or significant end-organ involvement despite initial immunomodulatory treatment. Anakinra had been used in some case series[15,17] and was recommended for the refractory disease.[23] This treatment was not easily available in our PICU. The small number of cases globally should conduct all intensivist pediatricians to coordinate for a multicenter study.
The WHO, the Royal College of Pediatrics in the United Kingdom, and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC established an MIS-C definition case.[12,13] Our eight patients fulfilled the criteria for the diagnosis of MIS-C. Symptoms of fever, abdominal pain, and cardiac dysfunction with elevated inflammation markers and elevated troponin and pro- BNP levels were the most seen features in MIS-C patients requiring intensive care. All patients except one had a cardiac dysfunction requiring inotropic agents. MIS-C can be observed without heart failure, but most patients admitted in intensive care units presented cardiac dysfunction or shock.[5,14,15,16] Grimaud et al.[17] reported the first case series of acute myocarditis with major systemic inflammation following SARS-COV-2 infection in twenty children. The cardiac function for our cluster admissions had been improved in a few days, and the prognosis was well for all. Dobutamine was the first agent used because of its selective inotropic effect. Three patients required milrinone, and one patient also required levosimendan. The same features were reported in the literature.[18,19] Avoiding fluid overload should be considered in all stages of the disease.
All our patients received IVIG with methylprednisolone. Most reported MIS-C were treated using the standard protocol for Kawasaki disease (KD), IV IG.[18,20,21] KD has been related to the occurrence of different viral infections in children, but that its direct, unequivocal cause is still unclear.[22] Evidence for IVIG and glucocorticoids in MIS-C is also based on their use in KD and fulminant myocarditis, two conditions that resemble MIS-C in some aspects.[23] There is no consensus for the treatment of severe MIS-C in our country. We choose to treat our critically ill patients with an association of IVIG and steroids. A patient with MIS-C is considered to have a refractory disease when the child has persistent fever and/or significant end-organ involvement despite initial immunomodulatory treatment. Anakinra had been used in some case series[15,17] and was recommended for the refractory disease.[23] This treatment was not easily available in our PICU. The small number of cases globally should conduct all intensivist pediatricians to coordinate for a multicenter study.
Conclusions
We
reported the first Tunisian small cluster admissions of eight
critically ill children in our PICU to highlight the increase of a new
severe emerging disease with evidence of prior COVID-19 infection in
older children. Additional epidemiologic data are needed to estimate
the prevalence of MIS-C.
References
- Bogiatzopoulou A, Mayberry H, Hawcutt DB, Whittaker
E, Munro A, Roland D, Simba J, Gale C, Felsenstein S, Abrams E, Jones
CB, Lewins I, Rodriguez-Martinez CR, Fernandes RM, Stilwell PA, Swann
O, Bhopal S, Sinha I, Harwood R. COVID-19 in children: what did we
learn from the first wave? Paediatr Child Health (Oxford). 2020 ;30(12)
:438-443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paed.2020.09.005 PMid:32983255 PMCid:PMC7500879
- Toubiana
J, Poirault C, Corsia A, Bajolle F, Fourgeaud J, Angoulvant F, Debray
A, Basmaci R, Salvador E, Biscardi S, Frange P, Chalumeau M, Casanova
JL, Cohen JF, Allali S. Kawasaki-like multisystem inflammatory syndrome
in children during the covid-19 pandemic in Paris, France: prospective
observational study. BMJ. 2020 ;369 :m2094. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m2094 PMid:32493739 PMCid:PMC7500538
- Dufort
EM, Koumans EH, Chow EJ, Rosenthal EM, Muse A, Rowlands J, Barranco MA,
Maxted AM, Rosenberg ES, Easton D, Udo T, Kumar J, Pulver W, Smith L,
Hutton B, Blog D, Zucker H. New York State and Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children
Investigation Team. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children in
New York State. N Engl J Med. 2020 ;383(4) :347-358. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2021756 PMid:32598830 PMCid:PMC7346766
- Verdoni
L, Mazza A, Gervasoni A, Martelli L, Ruggeri M, Ciufreda M, Bonanomi E,
D'Antiga L. An outbreak of severe Kawasaki-like disease at the Italian
epicentre of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic: an observational cohort study.
The Lancet. 2020 ;395 :1771-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31103-X
- García-Salido
A, de Carlos Vicente JC, Belda Hofheinz S, Balcells Ramírez J, Slöcker
Barrio M, Leóz Gordillo I, Hernández Yuste A, Guitart Pardellans C,
Cuervas-Mons Tejedor M, Huidobro Labarga B, Vázquez Martínez JL,
Gutiérrez Jimeno M, Oulego-Erróz I, Trastoy Quintela J, Medina Monzón
C, Medina Ramos L, Holanda Peña MS, Gil-Antón J, Sorribes Ortí C,
Flores González JC, Hernández Palomo RM, Sánchez Ganfornina I,
Fernández Romero E, García-Besteiro M, López-Herce Cid J, González
Cortés R. Spanish Pediatric Intensive Care Society working group on
SARS-CoV-2 infection. Severe manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 in children
and adolescents: from COVID-19 pneumonia to multisystem inflammatory
syndrome: a multicentre study in pediatric intensive care units in
Spain. Crit Care. 2020 ;24(1) :666. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-03332-4 PMid:33243303 PMCid:PMC7689392
- WHO. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19. https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-in-children-and-adolescents-with-covid-19 (published July 23 2008).
- De
Castro REV, Medeiros DNM, Prata-Barbosa A, de Magalhães-Barbosa MC.
Surviving Sepsis Campaign International Guidelines for the Management
of Septic Shock and Sepsis-Associated Organ Dysfunction in Children.
Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2020 ;21(10) :924-925. https://doi.org/10.1097/PCC.0000000000002444 PMid:33009314
- Banker
A, Bell C, Gupta-Malhotra M, Samuels J. Blood pressure percentile
charts to identify high or low blood pressure in children. BMC Pediatr.
2016 ;16:98. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-016-0633-7 PMid:27430884 PMCid:PMC4950817
- Tissot
C, Singh Y, Sekarski N. Echocardiographic Evaluation of Ventricular
Function-For the Neonatologist and Pediatric Intensivist. Front
Pediatr. 2018 ;6:79. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2018.00079 PMid:29670871 PMCid:PMC5893826
- Thomas
ME, Blaine C, Dawnay A, Devonald MA, Ftouh S, Laing C, Latchem S,
Lewington A, Milford DV, Ostermann M. The definition of acute kidney
injury and its use in practice. Kidney Int. 2015 ;87(1) :62-73. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2014.328 PMid:25317932
- Webb
K, Abraham DR, Faleye A, McCulloch M, Rabie H, Scott C. Cape Town
MISC-Team. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children in South
Africa. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2020 ;4(10) :e38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30272-8
- Royal
College of Paediatrics and Child Health. Guidance: Paediatric
multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with COVID-19. https://www.rcpch.ac.uk/resources/guidance-paediatric-multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-temporally-associated-covid-19 (published May 1 2020).
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome. https://www.cdc.gov/mis-c/hcp/index.html (published August 28 2020).
- Belhadjer
Z, Méot M, Bajolle F, Khraiche D, Legendre A, Abakka S, Auriau J,
Grimaud M, Oualha M, Beghetti M, Wacker J, Ovaert C, Hascoet S, Selegny
M, Malekzadeh-Milani S, Maltret A, Bosser G, Giroux N, Bonnemains L,
Bordet J, Di Filippo S, Mauran P, Falcon-Eicher S, Thambo JB, Lefort B,
Moceri P, Houyel L, Renolleau S, Bonnet D. Acute Heart Failure in
Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children in the Context of Global
SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic. Circulation. 2020 ;142(5) :429-436. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360 PMid:32418446
- Greene
AG, Saleh M, Roseman E, Sinert R. Toxic shock-like syndrome and
COVID-19: A case report of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in
children (MIS-C). Am J Emerg Med. 2020 :S0735-6757(20)30492-7.
- Ahmed
M, Advani S, Moreira A, Zoretic S, Martinez J, Chorath K, Acosta S,
Naqvi R, Burmeister-Morton F, Burmeister F, Tarriela A, Petershack M,
Evans M, Hoang A, Rajasekaran K, Ahuja S, Moreira A. Multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children: A systematic review.
EClinicalMedicine. 2020 ;26 :100527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100527 PMid:32923992 PMCid:PMC7473262
- Grimaud
M, Starck J, Levy M, Marais C, Chareyre J, Khraiche D, Leruez-Ville M,
Quartier P, Léger PL, Geslain G, Semaan N, Moulin F, Bendavid M, Jean
S, Poncelet G, Renolleau S, Oualha M. Acute myocarditis and multisystem
inflammatory emerging disease following SARS-CoV-2 infection in
critically ill children. Ann Intensive Care. 2020 ;10(1) :69. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13613-020-00690-8 PMid:32488505 PMCid:PMC7266128
- Jiang
L, Tang K, Levin M, Irfan O, Morris SK, Wilson K, Klein JD, Bhutta ZA.
COVID-19 and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and
adolescents. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020 ;20(11) :e276-e288. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30651-4
- Sperotto
F, Friedman KG, Son MBF, VanderPluym CJ, Newburger JW, Dionne A.
Cardiac manifestations in SARS-CoV-2-associated multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children: a comprehensive review and proposed
clinical approach. Eur J Pediatr. 2020 :1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-020-03766-6 PMid:32803422 PMCid:PMC7429125
- Deza
Leon MP, Redzepi A, McGrath E, et al. COVID-19-associated pediatric
multisystem inflammatory syndrome. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2020 ;9
:407-08. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piaa061 PMid:32441749 PMCid:PMC7313914
- Nakra
NA, Blumberg DA, Herrera-Guerra A, Lakshminrusimha S. Multi-System
Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Following SARS-CoV-2
Infection: Review of Clinical Presentation, Hypothetical Pathogenesis,
and Proposed Management. Children (Basel). 2020 ;7(7) :69. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7070069 PMid:32630212 PMCid:PMC7401880
- Rigante
D. Kawasaki disease as the immune-mediated echo of a viral infection.
Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2020 ;12(1) :e2020039. https://doi.org/10.4084/mjhid.2020.039 PMid:32670517 PMCid:PMC7340244
- Henderson LA, Canna SW, Friedman KG, Gorelik M, Lapidus SK, Bassiri H, Behrens EM, Ferris A, Kernan KF, Schulert GS, Seo P, Son MBF, Tremoulet AH, Yeung RSM, Mudano AS, Turner AS, Karp DR, Mehta JJ. American College of Rheumatology. (2020). Clinical Guidance for Pediatric Patients with Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Associated with SARS-CoV2 and Hyperinflammation in COVID-19. VERSION 2. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2020 ;72(11) :1791-1805. https://doi.org/10.1002/art.41454 PMid:32705809 PMCid:PMC7405113
[TOP]